Two Non

People always long to have some perfect life and perfect society, since the ancient times and until now writers from all over the world write about their ideal societies. Two of the most famous works depicting this theme – non-existing worlds -are Utopia by Tomas More and 1984 by George Orwell, though they represent two opposite worlds.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Two Non-Existing Worlds specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More First, I’d like to point out that More’s Utopia became more than the name of his book and his non-existing country, it became a name for every ideal world. People use to say now that an ideal society is Utopia, meaning that it is impossible. Returning to More’s Utopia it is necessary to stress that this book reveals his ideas about the basic principles and laws which should rule in each human society. More criticizes the laws of the contemporary European society; h e highlights that other countries, in the East for instance, have more fair laws; and after that he starts depicting Utopia, where all people live and work in the ideal society. One of the main religious principles in Utopia is â€Å"that the soul of man is immortal and that God of His goodness has designed that it should be happy† (More 47). Thus, More states that the main idea of every society should be happiness and satisfaction of its citizens. On the contrary, Orwell’s people live in â€Å"Negative Utopia†, where people live in fear and unjust society. Ruling totalitarian party of Orwell’s society keeps people in fear and ignorance, to make them work for the sake of the party. The majority of people should â€Å"always look cheerful†, they should â€Å"never shirk anything† and â€Å"always yell with the crowd†, because this is â€Å"the only way to be safe† (Orwell 122). It is very remarkable that Orwell’s people only look cheerful, though they are miserable; moreover they cannot express their real needs and wishes, for in that case they will disappear. People of this society are presupposed to feel hatred rather than happiness, they even have â€Å"Two Minutes Hate† (Orwell 9), it is during this time all people gather in front of the big telescreen and express their hatred towards non-existing enemy. In Orwell’s society everything is assigned from the above. People are to do some definite, even mechanic and often useless work, like deleting yesterday news and making out some new ones, which better fit to the new environment. Thus, people were turned to machines lacking any emotions and thoughts. Contrariwise, in Utopia people knew all kind of work and could ask to prolong the term of working in the area they liked. For example, agriculture is paid great attention and is â€Å"so universally understood among them, that no person, either man or woman is ignorant of it† ( More 33). People spend some definite period of time in agriculture, and then shift to other areas, for example, trade. People could stay in agriculture more, if they liked working in the field and could do it the best. Thus, in Utopia people could do every necessary work, and they also could dedicate their life to the labor they preferred.Advertising Looking for essay on comparative literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Another remarkable point to consider is the perception of war in both worlds. First, I’d like to consider Utopia where â€Å"they detest war as a very brutal thing† (More 64). Here war is unacceptable, though they have trained warriors; they try to prevent any war. Utopians seek for peace; they understand that the appropriate state of any society is peace, not war. They understand that only peace can bring happiness and satisfaction to the citizens of Utopia. Orwell’s society, on the contrary, lives in war, they constantly have wars, at least the ruling party says so. They have powerful Ministry of War, where all the issues of war are considered. All Orwell’s people â€Å"know that it is necessary that the war should continue everlastingly and without victory† (Orwell 197). In this world, war is not only the state of the society; it is a state of the people’s minds. This state of war is to make people frighten and obedient, fulfilling the necessary work and orders. At this point I’d like to point out that Orwell and More pertain to different centuries and, thus, different movements and even absolutely different worlds. More lived in times when people believed in human mind, believed that people can and should be happy and live in fair world. More suggested the ideas of enlightenment in his Utopia, giving reasonable ways to obtain just society. Orwell lived in the world of two great wars, world wars. He saw totalitarian ruling in se veral societies, he saw technological progress and also saw what human mind can do. Orwell’s book is a piece of social science fiction, where he warns people against the possible future of the whole humanity, if people continue moving in the path chosen in the beginning and in the middle of the XX century. These two non-existing worlds reveal the More and Orwell’s ideas about the ideal society, though More show how it should be, depicting the ideal and beautiful world of Utopia; and Orwell shows how it should not (but can) be, depicting horrible totalitarian Oceania. Works Cited More, T. Utopà ­a. New York: Cosimo, Inc., 2004.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Two Non-Existing Worlds specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Orwell, G. 1984. New York: Signet Classic, 1981. This essay on Two Non-Existing Worlds was written and submitted by user Emmalee David to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Business law Reflective The WritePass Journal

Business law Reflective Abstract Business law Reflective , p. 140). Outline of law The presentation was based upon the advantages and disadvantages of Limited Liability Partnership’s (LLPs) and whether LLPs have been taken up by many professional (unlimited) partnerships. Accordingly, it was thus made clear that LLPs are advantageous in that partners of LLPs have limited liabilities (Cody et al, 2007, p. 82) and are therefore not responsible for another partner’s misconduct or negligence (Haywood, 2010, p. 546). As such, there is a reduced risk to the personal wealth of all partners from creditor’s claims. LLPs also provide great flexibility for partners in that they facilitate participation in the management and maintenance of the partnership (Rouch and Smethurst, 2004, p. 46). Moreover, because LLPs require registration at Companies House, these types of partnerships may give the perception that they are much more substantial than they actually are. LLPs do, however, have a number of disadvantages including the lack of privacy since all finan cial information must be disclosed to the public (Morris, 2001, p. 161). In addition, there is also the requirement for an LLP agreement which may not be desirable for many partnerships. LLPs are also taxed in the same way as sole traders and traditional partnerships and so do not obtain the same tax benefits that a Limited Liability Company would receive. The limited liability protection that is provided may also lead to trade suppliers being unwilling to provide credit to the partnership as they may perceive the protection as a high risk for themselves. If an LLP fails, no redress would be provided to the partners even if they are owed money (Murray, 1998, p. 15). The strengths and weakness of the workings of group Strengths In undertaking the above presentation, I was provided with the opportunity to work as part of group. In doing so, I was able to pool my ideas together with others and understand the advantages and disadvantages of LLPs from different perspectives. In addition, any complex problems that I faced were more easily tackled since I was able to discuss the problems with the others in the group and therefore gain relevant feedback. As a group, we were able to meet up in order to work on the presentation together, which enabled us to generate ideas that we may not have come up with individually. The end product was therefore a success because of the fact that everyone in the group was able to contribute to what was being said. Weaknesses Although it was enjoyable working with other people, there were many drawbacks of the workings of the group. This was evidenced by the lack of team work that existed at times as some individuals provided more input than others. As a result, I often found myself taking the leading position on this assignment as opposed to working with the group as equals and I subsequently ended up providing the group with the appropriate guidance needed to conduct the presentation. This could have been due to the fact that I was better at organising what needed to be addressed, whereas the others in the group were better at expressing their opinions. When we were initially provided with the instructions for the presentation, we all agreed that it was best to start off by each giving our own opinions as to what we thought would work best for this particular topic. It was then decided that each individual ought to research a different matter on the topic. Some parts of the research that was gathered we re, however, stronger than other parts and so further clarification was needed. Nevertheless, one of the main things that I learnt from this process was the acceptance of other people’s ideas and opinions. At times it was difficult to decide whose particular research was the most useful and it seemed as though the information being gathered was not sufficient enough to convey the issues surrounding LLPs within our presentation. Hence, it would have been a lot better if the group had communicated with each other more effectively and were thus prepared to get more involved with the team (Maughan Webb, 2001, p. 1). This is because, it seemed as though a lot of independent work was still be undertaken for this assignment even though it was a group project. This had a significant impact upon the overall presentation as it appeared that the group had not worked together in considering the advantages and disadvantages of LLPs. This could have largely been due to the difficulty it was in getting groups members together since we had to find an appropriate time th at was convenient for everyone in the group. This was quite difficult to achieve as we had to figure out a time that would suit the needs of all and then email each other to find out if this was in fact appropriate. The strengths and weakness of presentation Strengths The presentation skills of each individual in the group were sufficient in that we all maintained a fair level of eye contact and an appropriate use of language throughout. We also maintained a very good pace and I became aware of my strong expressive voice and powerful eye contact. The presentation was also well organised and we had memorised what we had included in the presentation so there was little need to script read. Overall, the presentation was well delivered and organised in an a clear concise manner that allowed the reader to easily identify the advantages and disadvantages of LLPs. Weaknesses In conducting the presentation I felt that I lacked the ability to put my audience at ease because of the lack of clarity that existed in the presentation. Better preparation would have rectified this, yet because of the complexities that existed within the group it was extremely difficult to prepare as well as we should have done. Furthermore, although I had the ability to explain the different concepts of LLPs clearly, I was unable to answer the question that was put to me at the end of the presentation appropriately. As a result, it is evident that further reading on the topic would have been beneficial as it would have enhanced my knowledge and understanding of LLPs and would have provided me with the ability to answer any questions that were put to me. The tone of my voice could also have been a little more varied and I could have had greater confidence in the subject matter. More preparation would have resolved this as well as further collaboration with the other group members. In addition, we also had a lack of skill when it came to using PowerPoint and so it would have been better if we had got ourselves familiar with the software before making the presentation. How any weaknesses can be overcome in the future? Whilst there were certain parts that appeared to be satisfactory, such as the appropriate level of eye contact and use of language, it has become evident that my presentation lacked any clarity. As such, I will ensure that future presentations will be a lot more clear and concise. This can be achieved through preparation and ensuring that greater efforts are made to communicate with the group. Preparation and practice would also allow me to answer questions from the audience with greater confidence and I would have a better understanding of the topic (Marathe, 2007, p. 7). I would also practice the tone of my voice in order to ensure that more variance was provided throughout. In relation to the use of PowerPoint, I would ensure that I am fully aware of how the software works so that difficulties do not arise during the actual presentation. What you learnt about teamwork and oral presentation skills After listening to the feedback I received following my presentation, I have learnt that there are certain elements of my teamwork and presentation skills that need improvement. For teamwork to be effective, all members of the group need to be confident in the subject matter and willing to participate through group discussions. This will ensure that the ideas are expressed with greater clarity and the nature of each individual’s contribution will be better understood. I also learnt that in order for a team to be successful, we need to be more efficient with resources and therefore need to manage time more effectively. From this experience, I also learnt the complexities that can arise from trying to collaborate with others and although I was often left frustrated, it all came together in the end. In effect, it became evident that different ideas are often generated when collaborating with others, yet it is important that all group members listen to each other as well as provid ing their own information. For oral presentations to be effective, it is important that the presenters know the subject matter inside and out as this will become clear to the audience. Confidence is thereby important for a successful presentation to be conducted, which can be conveyed through eye contact. This provides an element of intimacy and makes the audience feel comfortable. In addition, too much information should not be provided to the audience as this will divert their attention away from the most important points. Preparation is also essential, especially for presenters who lack experience, because those who do not prepare as well end up going off on tangents. References Cody, T., Hopkins, D. A., Perlman, L. A., and Kalteux, L. L., (2007) Limited Liability Companies, Business Economics, 9th Edition. Gibbs, G. (1988) Learning by Doing: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Methods, SCED, Birmingham. Haywood, J. (2010) LLP Members: How Limited is Your Liability? Part 1, Journal of International Banking and Financial Law, Volume 9, Issue 9. Marathe, M. (2007) The Successful Speaker: 273 Tips for Powerful Presentations, Lulu. Maughan, C., and Webb, J., (2001). Small group learning and assessment. Retrieved August 01, 2007, from the Higher Education Academy ukcle.ac.uk/resources/temp/assessment.html accessed 01 May 2013. Moon, J. A. (2013) A Handbook of Reflective and Experimental Learning: Theory and Practice, Routledge. Morris, G. D., (2001) Limited Liability Partnerships, Tolley’s Practical Business Fortnightly for Senior Administrators, Volume 24, Issue 21. Murray, C. (1998) Comment – Take it to the Limit, Law Society Gazette, Volume 95, Issue 40. Rouch, D. and Smethhurst, J. (2004) Limited Liability Partnerships: Flexing the Body Corporate, Journal of International Banking and Financial Law, Volume 49, Issue 2. Thorpe, K. (2010) Reflective Learning Journals: From Concept to Practice, Reflective Practice: International Multidisciplinary Perspectives, Volume 5, Issue 3.

Laboratory report on sluice gate and hydraulic jump Coursework

Laboratory report on sluice gate and hydraulic jump - Coursework Example Generally, sluice gats are made up of a gate, a power mechanism and a frame and they are designed to withstand various water loads at different operating heights. There are two types of sluice gates. These are the wall-mounted sluice gates and the vertical rising sluice gates. For the vertical rising sluice gates, they are designed such that water flow is prevented as long as the water height does not exceed the gate height. In this types of sluice gates, the bottom and the side walls are sealed. For the wall-mounted sluice gates, also referred to as bottom sluice gates, passage of water is prevented to flow up to heights that exceed the gate. In this type, all the four sides of the sluice gates are sealed (Hager, 1992). As water flows in an open channel, it is only acted upon by atmospheric pressure implying that the gauge pressure is zero. In open channel flow, two flow depths exists, these are the subcritical flow and the supercritical flow (Khatsuria, 2004). The use of sluice in open channel alters the flow characteristics resulting in the flow changing from subcritical to supercritical. The flow rate under a sluice gate is illustrated by equation (1) below where by it is assumed that the flow is ideal (which is never the case in real situation). From the figure 1 above, it can be seen that flow under the sluice gate results into generation of a hydraulic jump just before the flow resumes back to subcritical flow from supercritical flow (Subramanya, 2009). As earlier connoted, a sluice gate changes flow from subcritical to supercritical flow. Under normal cases, the flow in an open channel is usually subcritical, therefore as the flow reverts back to sub-critical flow after passing through a sluice gate, there is sudden energy dissipation that results from the change of flow from supercritical to subcritical (Hager, 1992). This is the hydraulic jump. Where V is the velocity, is the

Explain the significance of purity and pollution in the caste system Essay

Explain the significance of purity and pollution in the caste system - Essay Example But as time passed, the caste system became a water tight social compartment. Caste system is not peculiar to India. It existed and still exists in parts of Egypt, Europe etc, though in some milder forms. The world caste owes its origin to the Portuguese word 'casta' meaning 'lineage' (Ghurye, 1999, 31). PA Sorokin in his book "Social Mobility writes "Unstratified society with real equality of the members is a myth which never been realized in the history of mankind and when class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it caste" Many theories have been promulgated to account for the origin of the caste system in India (Dumont, 1961, 75). The political theory states it was a shrewd trick of upper class Brahmins. The occupational theory traces it origin to the family's occupation. The racial theory traces its origin to the fact that different races organize their own race to form a separate caste. The mythical theory points towards its creation by the god to perform different functions And last of all comes, the Evolutionary Theory. This theory maintains caste system as a social phenomenon, the origin of which lies in social evolution which came into being through a long and slow evolutionary process. It is quite possible that during the evolutionary process some ugly things did make their entry into the system. The one and probably the worst was the custom of 'untouchability'. With improvement in education, this social evil has almost disappeared from the society. Right from the beginning of twentieth century British officials have used the term 'backward classes' to indicate low status backwards castes, and 'depressed classes' to mean the former untouchables or Scheduled castes (now dalits). They do not seem to have been particular about the terms used, and such sloppiness has continued in independent India. It so worth noting that terms such as Backward classes and Scheduled Castes also served as euphemisms for such unpleasant realities as low castes ands untouchables' (Beteille, 1965, 46). Still the caste system is not without its merit, which should not be ignored. It was based on the division of labor and thus enabled society to function efficiently. It made labor more efficient as the hereditary skill in at was transformed from father to son. Castes served as the social insurances in the society and helped their members in time of need. The caste system solved the problem of choosing careers and the problem of unemployment did not arise. The system provided united action against exploitation. Also by eliminating competition, it protected the poor. Thus for a Hindu the caste system has proved, '' his club, his trade union, his benefit society and his philanthropic society" (Ghurye, 1999, 67) To sum up, in each linguistic area there were about two hundred groups called castes with distinct names, birth in one of which, usually determined the status in society of a given individual, which were divided into about two thousand smaller units- generally known as sub- castes-fixing the limits of marriage and effective social life and making for specific cultural tradition. These major groups were held together by the possession, with few exceptions, of a common priesthood. There was a sort of an overall counting which grouped all of them into five or six classes overtly expressed or tacitly understood. Over a large part of the

Scholary discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Scholary discussion - Essay Example Thus, quality assurance is ensured through peer reviewing of the information, which is published in the online environment. The environment also ensures that there is fair use of the published information for the purposes of research and education. Hence, preservation of the scholarly information so that it becomes available after a long-time occurs. Social networks and online environments are different. For social networks, scholar focus more on sharing ideals and issues, which are directed on their social life while in the online environments the focus is on contribution towards scholarly field. Scholarly discussions in online environment have rules and regulations, but in social networks there are no rules and regulations (Morgenthaler 335). Further, social networks lack the principles of guiding how the discussions have to occur. As such, there are no structures on how social network discussions occur. This makes social networks not to be effective means of conducting scholarly discussions on different

Essential Anatomy And Physiology Physical Education Essay

Essential Anatomy And Physiology Physical Education Essay Homeostasis refers to the bodys ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even while continually subjected to external changes. Body temperature, blood volume and heart rate are just a few examples of the hundreds of conditions the body regulates to maintain homeostatic balance. This internal equilibrium is so important that virtually every disease or disorder in the body can be traced to a homeostatic imbalance. The maintenance of homeostasis includes: Control of the water balance of the blood Control of blood sugar level Control of body temperature Control of blood urea level Each of the internal factors are maintained by a separate mechanism that is specific for that factor. However, all the mechanisms for homeostasis share common features: A specific sensor is able to detect the value of the factor being monitored Any deviation from the desired value (norm)is corrected so that the norm is more or less maintained The corrective mechanism involves negative feedback. For the body cells to survive and function properly, the composition and temperature of the fluids around the cells (intestinal fluid) must remain much the same. Corrective mechanism Rise above norm Norm Norm Corrective mechanism Fall below norm Various organ systems of the body act to maintain homeostasis through a combination of hormonal and nervous mechanisms. In everyday life, the body must regulate respiratory gases, protect itself against agents of disease (pathogens), maintain fluid and salt balance regulate energy and nutrient supply, and maintain a constant body temperature. All these must be coordinated and appropriate responses made to incoming stimuli. In addition, the body must be able to repair itself when injured and be capable of reproducing (leaving offspring). The human body must maintain homeostasis in order to function properly and aid in growth and development, disruptions to homeostatic functions can have triggered effects on the growth and development. Normal blood temperatureRegulation of body temperature by Homeostasis: Cold receptors in skin Warm receptors in skin Decrease increase Hypothalamus Heat gain Heat loss Vasodilation of superficial arterioles onset of sweating hair lowered as hair erector muscles relax and decreased metabolic rate. Vasoconstriction of superficial arterioles onset of shivering hair raised by contraction of hair erector muscles and increased metabolic rate. Feedback Feedback Negative feedback in the control of body temperature: Skin vasodilation sweating lowering hairs Heat loss centre in the hypothalamus Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus Rise in blood temp Nerve impulse Nerve Impulse normal blood temp Blood at original temperature turns off corrective mechanisms Positive feedback occurs when the feedback causes the corrective measures to remain turned on, this causes the system to deviate more from the norm. One example is of neurones when a stimulus causes a small influx of sodium ions. Positive feedback occurs when there is a breakdown of control systems. In Certain diseases like typhoid fever, breakdown of temperature regulation resulting in a rise in body temperature leading to hypothermia, and vice versa if the body gets too cold (hypothermia). The human body systems, all play a part in maintaining homeostasis; they all have their own specific roles and parts. The human body systems work together in order to function effectively, no system would be able to work effectively on its own. Organ system Homeostatic function Cardiovascular Transports oxygen, nutrients and hormones secreted by the endocrine glands to tissue cells and transports wastes away from cells; defends against disease; helps control temperature, fluid, and pH balance. digestive Absorbs soluble nutrients after ingesting food and digesting it, eliminates nondigestible remains.   Supplies blood with nutrients and water for tissue cells. respiratory Captures oxygen and exchanges gasses at lungs and tissues, maintains breathing, helps control pH balance.   Supplies blood with oxygen for tissue cells and rids blood of carbon dioxide.   Helps regulate the acid-base balance of the blood. Skeletal Protects the body and provides support for locomotion and movement, stores minerals, produces blood cells. endocrine Coordinates and integrates the activities of other systems by secreting hormones, responding to stress, regulating fluid, pH balance and metabolism.   Works more slowly, with longer-lasting effects than the nervous system. muscular Produces body and internal movement, maintains posture, and produces heat that maintains body temperature.   Protects and supports internal organs. urinary Removes nitrogenous and other metabolic wastes from the bloodstream by excretion, helps control fluid balance, as well as the water-salt, and acid-base balance of the blood. nervous Receives sensory input, integrates and stores input, directs the body, and helps coordinate the activities of all the other organ systems.   It responds quickly to internal and external stimuli. The circulatory system is built up the heart, blood and blood vessels, which services all the cells in the body. Wastes are taken away and exchanged with oxygen and food nutrients. All cells in the body require oxygen and nutrients and they need theyre wastes removed. These are the main roles of the circulatory system. The heart, blood and blood vessels work together to service the cells of the body. Using the network of arteries, veins and capillaries, blood carries carbon dioxide to the lungs (for exhalation) and picks up oxygen. From the small intestine, the blood gathers food nutrients and delivers them to every cell. Components of the cardiovascular system Heart Blood vessels Blood Heart is a muscular pumping organ located in the medial to the lungs. The top of the heart, known as the hearts base, connects to the great blood vessels of the body; the aorta, vena cava, pulmonary trunk, and pulmonary veins. Blood vessels are the highways that allow blood flow quickly and efficiently from the heart to regions of the body. Three types of blood vessels, arteries and arterioles, capillaries, and veins and venules. Blood as a connective tissue, transports many substances through the body and helps maintain homeostasis of nutrients, wastes, and gases. Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and liquid plasma. All of the organ systems in the body contribute to homeostasis, but the cardiovascular system, the heart and blood vessels is especially important. Without the cardiovascular system none of the other systems can function. The muscular system requires large amounts of oxygen from the cardiovascular system. Muscles cramp and freeze up when they do not get adequate oxygen supply. If in the case the cardiovascular system cannot pump enough oxygen rich blood to the muscles the body is unable to move. The cardiovascular system also helps in maintaining blood volume; it works in conjunction with the kidneys to maintain blood volume and composition. The cardiovascular system provides the blood pressure that the kidneys use to filter waste out of the body. The cardiovascular system and the skin help maintain homeostasis by regulating body temperature. When the body over heats, the blood vessels that serve the skin dilate. The cardiovascular system rushes warm blood to the superficial capillar ies of the skin. Heat from the blood radiates off of the skins surface, cooling the body. When body temperature drops too low, skin capillaries constrict. This prevents warm blood from reaching the surface of the skin. The heart pumps extra blood to the deeper vital organs. Nasal passage Air entering from the nostrils is led to the nasal passages. The nasal cavity that is located behind the nose comprises the nasal passages that form an important part of the respiratory system in human beings. The nasal cavity is responsible for conditioning the air that is received by the nose. The process of conditioning involves warming or cooling the air received by the nose, removing dust particles from it and also moistening it, before it enters the pharynx Pharynx It is located behind the nasal cavity and above the larynx. It is also a part of the digestive system of the human body. Food as well as air passes through the pharynx Larynx Consists of two pairs of membranes. Air causes the vocal cords to vibrate, thus producing sound. The larynx is situated in the neck of mammals and plays a vital role in the protection of the trachea. Trachea Airway through which respiratory air travels bronchi The trachea divided into two main bronchi. The bronchi extend into the lungs spreading in a tree-like manner as bronchial tubes. The bronchial tubes subdivide and with each subdivision, their walls get thinner. This dividing of the bronchi into thin-walled tubes results in the formation of bronchioles. The bronchioles terminate in small air chambers, each of which contains cavities known as alveoli. Alveoli have thin walls, which form the respiratory surface. The exchange of gases between the blood and the air takes place through these walls. lungs Lungs form the most vital component of the human respiratory system. They are located on the two sides of the heart. They are responsible for transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into blood and releasing carbon dioxide from blood to the atmosphere. The respiratory system is made up of the nasal passage, the pharynx, larynx, the trachea, bronchi and lungs. It is responsible for the process of respiration that is vital to the survival of living beings. Respiration is the process of obtaining and using oxygen, while eliminating carbon dioxide. Breathing occurs when air passes into and out of the lungs; its an involuntary process but can be controlled consciously. Breathing involves the movement of air in and out of the lungs in generated by differences in pressure inside and outside the body. The most important muscle used in breathing is the diaphragm, a muscular sheet between the base and the abdominal cavity. The diaphragm is assisted by the internal and external intercostal (which lie between the ribs) and by the neck and abdominal muscles. A person normally breathes in and out about 500ml (1pt) of air 12-17 times a minute. Breathing involves inhalation followed by exhalation, during inhalation the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract to expand the chest cavity. During forceful inhalation the neck muscles also contract. However during exhalation the chest cavity decreases, and the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax. In order to function, the body cells need oxygen. The respiratory system, w hich consists of air passages, pulmonary vessels, and the lungs, as well as breathing muscles, supplies fresh oxygen to the blood for distribution to the rest of the body tissues. In addition, respiration removes carbon dioxide, a waste product of body processes. Alveoli which are tiny air sacs of the lungs, they are elastic, thin-walled structures that are supplied with air by respiratory bronchioles. Tiny blood capillaries surrounding the alveolar walls allow oxygen to be carried into the bloodstream. In exchange, carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into the alveoli, from where it is exhaled. Gas exchange takes place in the lungs, where carbon dioxide from the blood passes into the alveoli through the respiratory membrane, a thin barrier that has several layers. Oxygen crosses the membrane in the opposite direction, from the alveoli to the blood capillaries. Homeostasis is hence maintained by the respiratory system in two of the following ways: gas exchange and regulation of blood pH. Gas exchange is performed by the lungs by eliminating carbon dioxide, a waste product given off by cellular respiration. As carbon dioxide exits the body, oxygen needed for cellular respiration enters the body through the lungs. ATP, produced by cellular respiration, provides the energy for the body to perform many functions, including nerve conduction and muscle contraction. Lack of oxygen affects brain function, sense of judgment, and a host of other problems. The bodys complex anatomical systems work closely together to support movement, blood circulation, digestion and other basic requirements of life. The muscular system consists of three types of muscle, each with a separate function. The functions of the muscular and skeletal systems are so intricately interconnected that they are often referred to by the single term, the musculoskeletal system. This system consists of bones, joints, tendons, ligaments, skeletal muscles, nerves, cartilage and the voluntary or striated muscles. They work together to protect the brain and internal organs, posture, blood cell formation, and fat storage. Smooth muscles make up important internal organs, like the bladder, arteries and veins. They interact with the digestive system, reproductive system and circulatory system. Smooth muscles control and regulate blood pressure and blood flow. The cardiac muscle is the heart itself, an involuntary muscle that interacts with the circulatory system to supply ox ygen to all the tissues of the body. Skeletal muscles are under voluntary control, meaning we can choose to move them. Movement of smooth muscles and the cardiac muscle is involuntary, under control of the autonomic nervous system. The muscular system also plays an essential role in homeostasis, which is the regulation of internal body temperature. Homeostasis is maintained by the hormones that increase osteoblast activity to build bone, called calcitonin which is released by the thyroid gland, and the release of parathyroid hormone which increases osteoclast activity and is released by the parathyroid glands. As long as both of these function normally, the bone mass stays the same, this is a homeostatic state of bone. If it goes out of balance you will either build too much bone or loose bone mass and develop osteoporosis. The nervous system is the bodys decision and communication centre.  The central nervous system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made of nerves. Together they control every part of a persons daily life, from breathing and blinking to helping people to memorize facts for a test. Nerves reach from the brain to the face, ears, eyes, nose, and spinal cord, and from the spinal cord to the rest of your body. Sensory nerves gather information from the environment; send that info to the spinal cord, which then speed the message to the brain. The brain then makes sense of that message and fires off a response. Motor neurons deliver the instructions from the brain to the rest of your body. The spinal cord, made of a bundle of nerves running up and down the spine, is similar to a superhighway, speeding messages to and from the brain at every second. The CNS controls homeostasis as well as depends on it. The CNS controls homeostasis by us ing its receptors to sense changes in the bodys internal environment. E.g., certain receptors in the aorta monitor carbon dioxide and  oxygen  concentration in the blood. This information is relayed to the brain (most functions are controlled by the hypothalamus), and again through the CNS, the effector organs are signalled. Eg To increase or decrease the rate of breathing in response to carbon dioxide/oxygen concentration. The CNS comprises of nerve cells that depend on a very stable internal environment, especially in terms of sodium and potassium concentrations, without which it cannot function properly. Book References Author date title origin Publisher Oxford college CC unit 2 material Saffery and Stewart (eds) 2008, Maintaining the whole: human biology and health book3, The open university Web References Author Title of article or page online Web address Date accessed Kevin Berman, MD, PhD, Atlanta Center for Dermatologic Disease, Atlanta, GA. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by A.D.A.M. Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc., Editorial Team: David Zieve, MD, MHA, David R. Eltz, Stephanie Slon, and Nissi Wang. Circulatory system Image http://www.upmc.com/health-library/pages/adam.aspx?gencontentid=8747productid=1projectid=2returnurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.upmc.com%2Fhealth-library%2Fpages%2Fadam.aspx%3Fgencontentid%3D003869%26productid%3D1%26projectid%3D1 14/02/13 Respiratory system image http://www.medical-exam-essentials.com/respiratory-system-diagram.html 20/02/13 Central nervous system image http://www.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.umm.edu/graphics/images/en/19588.jpgimgrefurl=http://www.umm.edu/imagepages/19588.htmh=320w=400sz=27tbnid=uaHe_Ze8E0PioM:tbnh=90tbnw=113prev=/search%3Fq%3Dcentral%2Bnervous%2Bsystem%26tbm%3Disch%26tbo%3Duzoom=1q=central+nervous+systemusg=__SOXGCJUKqZxnuqbAYKyXdeWzMjI=docid=0is3P-6lanlgyMhl=ensa=Xei=MOEkUdHjB-Sp0AX41YGgDwsqi=2ved=0CE8Q9QEwAwdur=588 20/02/13 Journal References Author Title of article Name of journal Volume and issue Year

Attribution Theory

Discuss the types of attribution someone makes when they appraise a person’s behaviour. How may bias occur in their reasoning particularly if they have a very different background to the person they observe? Attribution theory focuses on ways in which we gather and process information in order to come up with judgements and explanations for people’s behaviours and personalities or as explained by Fiske & Taylor (1991) â€Å"how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at casual explanations for events.It examines what information is gathered and how it’s combined to form casual judgements†. There have been many studies aimed at explaining the main errors people make when making inferences about people’s behaviour and whether culture has an effect on how we make attributions. There are two types of attributions, internal attributions, also known as dispositional attributions, are when we attribute behaviour to person’s disposition (ment al state, personality, emotions, characteristics, etc. ).External attributions (also known as situational attributions) can be explained as attributing behaviour to the situation or the environment in which the behaviour took place. Correspondent inference (Jones & Davis, 1965) can be explained as when the observer infers that the actor’s behaviour corresponds with their motives (an internal attribution). A correspondence bias is when the observer over-attributes the cause of behaviour to dispositional factors at the expense of situational antecedents.This can also be explained as the fundamental attribution error (Lee Ross, 1977). Another believed to be error in attribution is suppressing dispositional inferences during social judgement, which leads to the dispositional rebound (Geeraert & Yzerbyt, 2007), meaning relying on dispositional inferences in subsequent judgements. It is believed that a judgement begins with a dispositional bias and situational information is to cor rect the initial judgement (Quattrone, 1992), this is called situational correction.Geeraert & Yzerbyt state that the observer must suppress dispositional judgements during the correctional stage and deal with the dispositional rebound in subsequent stages. Furthermore, a cause of the FAE (fundamental attribution error) could potentially be the fact that the observer may not see much to gain in making the effort to analyse the situational causes of a certain behaviour and too cognitively demanding (Andrews, 2001).However, due to the fact that they have greater incentives to predict and influence behaviour, people who tend to depend on others are less likely to make erroneous attributions, which explains why people from more interdependent cultures (such as East Asians) tend to avoid the FAE (Choi et al, 1999) in contrast with people from more independent cultures (such as Europeans or Americans).To further elaborate on this point, numerous psychologists believe that culture may have a determining effect on whether the observer is prone to excessively relying on dispositional judgements. This is shown in Choi & Nisbett’s 1998 study, which was in line with Snyder & Jones’ 1974 study, where a group of Korean and American participants were given the task of writing an essay with a designated position.They were then asked to judge a forced writer (a writer which wrote a piece as a forced task, whether or not what they were writing reflected their own beliefs). In contrast with the previous study, the Americans’ judgements were not affected, however, the Koreans no longer displayed correspondence bias when the situational forces were made salient. Kitayama and Miyamoto carries out a similar study, including Japanese and American students and as predicted, the Americans displayed correspondence bias, while the Japanese students did not.Moreover, with the aim of discovering whether the dispositional rebound occurs amongst people of East Asian back ground and using the dispositional rebound as a tool to study the process of attribution, a study was carried out which participants consisting of 105 students from Hogeschool Gent, Belgium and 128 students from Kasestart University in Bangkok, Thailand, were given the task of judging a free or forced writer in the attitude attribution paradigm. The diagnosticity of the essays were manipulated in order to have participants also judge the essays based on whether they were diagnostic or not.Thai students were more sensitive to the manipulation of the diagnosticity of the essays, whilst the Belgian participants showed no sensitivity at all. Both ethnic groups displayed symptoms of the dispositional rebound when judging a diagnostic forced essay, however, Belgian participants were the only ones to display the dispositional rebound when judging a non-diagnostic essay. Subsequently, participants were asked to judge a series of pictorially represented behaviours. Both Belgian and Thai part icipants displayed the dispositional rebound when the situational information was hidden.However, Thai participants no longer displayed the dispositional rebound when the situational information was made salient (also discovered by Choir & Nisbett in their 1998 study and Miyanoto & Kitayama in their 2002 study). A further explanation of the dispositional rebound could be that it is the ironic consequence of suppression and correction of an initial dispositional judgment as a result of cognitive fatigue due to the fact that the judgment of a constrained target demands a larger amount of cognitive effort which due to the reduction of cognitive resources, leaves some observers to rely on less demanding abstract language.Furthermore, several other studies which have directly focused on the universality of the correspondence bias (Choi & Nisbett, 1998; Kashima, Siegal, Tanaka, & Kashima, 1992; Krull et al. , 1999; Van Boven, Kamada, & Gilovich, 1999) have shown that people from interdepe ndent cultures aren’t immune to erroneous attributions .In these studies, both East Asians and Americans were given the task of judging a constrained target in the context of the attitude attribution paradigm (this requires participants to read an essay which either favours or opposes a particular issue under the conditions that participants are told whether or not the writer had a choice in selecting the viewpoint which the essay reflects), the perceiver induced constraint paradigm (this requires participants to ask a target to read out a pre-written attitudinal statement, then comply observe the target and then try to figure out the target’s true attitude) and the quiz paradigm.The results showed that regardless of culture, all participants displayed correspondence bias. These findings may suggest that culture may not determine whether an observer is prone to erroneous attributions. In conclusion, it seems that the most erroneous method in our ways of making social j udgments is our tendency to rely excessively on dispositional information when doing so and ironically suppressing our dispositional inferences which instinct seems to enforce the occurrence of, seems to cause a rebound effect in subsequent social judgments.But, it also seems that being raised in a society where it is the norm to be dependent on one another, tends to make one naturally more sensitive to informational information when it is there to be sensed and therefore more able to make accurate inferences about behaviour and mental states.